Fitness Profile — Nutrition | Quest®

Fitness Profile — Nutrition Test

Testing to evaluate your nutrition, including macro and micronutrients. Designed for athletes training at high volumes and intensities. Read more

Test details

Sample type:

Blood

Preparation:

Fasting (not eating or drinking anything except water) for 8-12 hours is recommended. You can drink water and take your regular medications as prescribed unless you are instructed not to by your healthcare provider. Please check with your healthcare provider. Those who choose not to fast may show elevated levels.

Test type: In Person

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$360.00

+ $6.00 Physician Service Fee

Quantity

What

The Fitness Profile – Nutrition helps the fitness-minded person evaluate their nutrition. This panel also includes a collection of key physical measurements and a Health Risk Assessment.

Who

Must be 18+ years of age to purchase.

How

Blood

Where

Find a location near you

Schedule an appointment, then visit a Quest Diagnostics patient service center location.

About the Test

The Fitness Profile - Nutrition also includes the collection of key body measurements and an online Health Risk Assessment, which is a brief survey that will capture family health history and current health and wellness behaviors. These additional metrics include a Biometric Screening (physical measurements of your height, weight, waist circumference, and blood pressure); a Health Risk Assessment survey to gather information about your family health history and your current health and wellness behaviors; a personalized Health Quotient Score which can be used to help you better understand and track your individual health and fitness. You may request a personal discussion with a doctor to review your results and help you set measurable and achievable health goals.

Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) is an enzyme found throughout the body, primarily in the liver and bones, and plays a key role in breaking down proteins. ALP is commonly used to evaluate bone and liver health but is also associated with inflammatory conditions.

Chloride is an electrolyte that helps to balance fluids inside and outside of your body's cells. Chloride plays an essential role in metabolism and is also instrumental in maintaining proper blood volume, blood pressure, anPotassium and sodium: Potassium and sodium electrolytes work in tandem to help maintain fluid balance and blood volume, nerve and muscle growth, heart function, and pH balance in the body. Potassium is obtained from the foods you eat and is present in all bodily tissues; sodium also comes from your diet. Having insufficient potassium and too much sodium may lead to hypertension.

Estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) measures how much blood the tiny renal filters (glomeruli) remove every minute based on your body size. The rate is based on the level of creatinine (a muscle waste product) in the blood. This calculation determines your level of kidney function. eGFR rates in athletes may be lower if the test is performed the day after a high-volume workout.

Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) is an enzyme found primarily in the liver, but also in other tissues, including the muscles, brain, heart, kidneys, pancreas, and red blood cells. AST plays a key role in breaking down proteins for energy production and is released into the blood when such tissues are damaged.

Alanine aminotransferase (ALT) is an enzyme found primarily in the liver and, to a lesser degree, the muscles, heart, kidneys, and pancreas. ALT helps the liver break down proteins, easing your body’s ability to absorb them for use as fuel and building blocks. Optimal liver functioning is important to the metabolic capacity for exercise.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is an odorless, colorless gas that your body produces when it breaks down food for energy. As you inhale oxygen, the blood transports carbon dioxide to the lungs for removal through exhalation. Most carbon dioxide in the blood is in the form of bicarbonate, which is an electrolyte. Bicarbonate is critical for maintaining a balanced pH in the blood that is neither too acidic nor too basic (alkaline). The levels of carbon dioxide in the body may be related to changes in the body's other electrolytes, such as sodium, potassium, and hydrogen, which can be caused by changes in pH or by fluid loss or retention.

Glucose is the primary sugar found in your bloodstream. The sugar mainly comes from the food you eat and supplies energy to all cells in the body. Glucose is the body’s preferred energy source during exercise and training. The body prefers to use glucose as fuel since it is the only energy source in the body that has the sole purpose of providing energy to cells. Other sources of potential energy, like fats and proteins, can also provide energy to fuel exercise and training. Besides fueling exercise in athletes, monitoring blood glucose levels is especially important to athletes with Type 1 or Type 2 diabetes.

Triglycerides are a type of fat found in the blood. They are found in foods and can also be produced in the liver. Triglycerides can provide an important source of energy during athletic events, particularly long duration events that deplete glycogen stores (glucose stored in the muscles and liver for future use).

Hemoglobin is a protein found only in red blood cells that carries oxygen from your lungs to the body’s tissues and returns carbon dioxide from the tissues back to the lungs. When sugar (glucose) enters the bloodstream, it attaches and sticks to hemoglobin molecules to form hemoglobin A1c. This blood test measures your average blood sugar levels over the past 3 months. The estimated average glucose (eAG) is a measure of estimated blood glucose over time and provides similar information to hemoglobin A1c.

Macronutrient Markers:

Cholesterol is a substance in the body that has important functions like forming cell membranes, hormones that control growth and development, and bile acids that aid in digestion. Cholesterol circulates in the blood as substances called lipoproteins that contain both fats (or lipids) and proteins. Although cholesterol has some essential functions, too much cholesterol from the diet or the body’s own production can deposit in the blood vessels causing plaques that are associated with health problems such as heart disease and increased risk for stroke. A total cholesterol test measures the total amount of cholesterol content in your blood, based on your LDL (bad cholesterol) and HDL (good cholesterol) levels.

Prealbumin (also known as transthyretin) is a protein in the blood that indicates whether a person is consuming sufficient protein. It is used by your body to make other proteins. Prealbumin also functions as a binding protein for thyroxine, the thyroid hormone. Prealbumin is primarily made in the liver. Because of this, its levels reflect how fast the liver makes new proteins, which can be slowed down by insufficient protein intake. With a lifespan of about 2 days in the blood, prealbumin can be used to track recent food intake and as an early indicator of nutritional status.

EPA/Arachidonic Acid Ratio is a ratio of the omega-3 fatty acid (EPA: eicosapentaenoic acid) to the omega-6 fatty acid (AA: Arachidonic acid). Since omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids have opposing roles in the body, they are often reported as a ratio to inform diet quality.

Arachidonic acid (AA) is an omega-6 fatty acid. Omega-6 fatty acids are found in food sources like eggs, beef, chicken and some oils (sunflower, corn, and soybean).

EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) is an omega-3 fatty acid found in fish. Omega-3 fatty acids are also known as essential polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) because they cannot be synthesized by the body and they must be consumed through food. Omega-3 fatty acids are involved in brain function, growth, and development, and reducing inflammation and cardiovascular disease risk.

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is an omega-3 fatty acid found in fish. Omega-3 fatty acids are also known as essential polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) because they cannot be synthesized by the body and they must be consumed through food. Omega-3 fatty acids are involved in brain function, growth, and development, and reducing inflammation and cardiovascular disease risk.

Albumin is a protein produced by the liver that helps keep fluid within the bloodstream rather than leaking into other tissues. The primary function of albumin is to transport hormones, vitamins, and enzymes throughout the body. During exercise, albumin is removed from the body as proteins are broken down. Monitoring albumin blood levels provides information about the body's nutritional status.

High-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol is a type of protein with an increased density because it contains more high-density proteins than low-density lipids (or fats). HDL is considered the “good cholesterol” because high levels are associated with healthier profiles, fitness, and lower cardiovascular risk. Monitoring HDL cholesterol levels provides valuable information about overall health, lifestyle, and diet quality.

The cholesterol/HDL ratio is a calculation obtained by dividing the total cholesterol level by the HDL cholesterol level. The ratio may be considered a more informative indicator of heart disease risk as it reflects the proportion of the total cholesterol that is in the desirable high-density form.

Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol is a substance in the body that contains fats and proteins. LDL cholesterols are considered low density because they contain a higher proportion of the less dense fats to the denser proteins. LDL cholesterol is often called ‘bad cholesterol’ because when it exists at high levels in the body, it can accumulate in the blood vessels, forming plaques and resulting in an increased risk of cardiovascular diseases. LDL levels are useful for evaluating and monitoring cardiovascular health, cardiovascular disease risk, and diet quality.

Non-HDL cholesterol is a measure of the cholesterol that can build up in the arteries to form plaques which may narrow the arteries. It is a measure of the cholesterol after the HDL-cholesterol is subtracted from the total cholesterol. Non-HDL cholesterol includes all of the lipoproteins that are considered “atherogenic” because they may accumulate in the vessel walls, resulting in plaque buildup and narrowing of the arteries, a condition known as atherosclerosis. Non-HDL cholesterol is a stronger indicator of heart disease risk than other individual lipid measurements. Unlike other lipid measures, non-HDL cholesterol does not appear to be affected by triglycerides.

The total protein test measures the total amount of 2 major types of proteins found in the blood, albumin and globulin. Abnormal total protein levels may be a sign of nutritional abnormalities, liver disease, or kidney dysfunction.

Globulin, along with albumin, makes up the total protein level on a blood test. Globulins are a class of proteins that act as antibodies in the immune system. They are found in the blood and help protect the body against infection and disease. They are an important component of immune proteins called immunoglobulins. Globulins play an important role in blood clotting, liver function, and fighting infection. Globulin blood levels can help in detecting infection, inflammation, certain medical conditions, and nutritional issues.

The albumin/globulin ratio (A/G ratio) is a test that measures the ratio of albumins to globulins in your bloodstream. This test is helpful for identifying and monitoring health conditions, protein levels, nutritional status, and immune function.

The Omega-3 & 6 Ratio Test measures the levels of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in your blood as well as three additional measurements/ratios:

Omega-3 Total
Omega-3 fatty acids are also known as essential (your body can’t produce them itself) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). Omega-3 fatty acids are involved in many body processes, including blood clotting, muscle function, and cell division and growth—all of which affect heart health. Too little omega-3 can lead to dry skin, an itchy rash, dry eyes, inflammation, joint pain, or depression. Omega-3 PUFAs include eicosatetraenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and docosapentaenoic acid (DPA). Our bodies cannot make omega-3 fats so we must get them from food or supplements. EPA and DHA are naturally found in fish oil and fatty fish like salmon, mackerel, herring, and tuna. ALA is an additional omega-3 fatty acids that is naturally found in plant-based foods like green leafy vegetables (kale, and spinach), soybeans, seeds, flaxseed oil, nuts, and vegetable oils.
Omega-6 Total
Omega-6 fatty acids are essential polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). Omega-6 fatty acids have important roles in brain function, skin health, blood clotting, cell health, and growth and development. Too little omega-6 can lead to dry skin, an itchy rash, dry eyes, inflammation, joint pain, or depression. Omega-6 PFUAs include linoleic acid (LA) and arachidonic acid (AA). Our bodies cannot make omega-6 fats, so we must get them from food or supplements. Omega-6 is naturally found in walnuts, tofu, peanut butter, sunflower seeds, and safflower oil.
EPA + DPA + DHA
This measurement may show the body’s intake and storage of EPA, DPA and DHA. A higher percentage suggests optimal levels that are seen with reduced risks of chronic diseases, while a lower percentage may mean there is a need for increased dietary intake or supplementation.^1,2
Arachidonic Acid/EPA Ratio
The AA/EPA ratio is a valuable predictor of cardiovascular risk. A higher ratio is associated with higher risk for major cardiac-related diseases and issues.^3,4,5
Omega-6/Omega-3 Ratio
The Omega-6 to Omega-3 ratio helps determine if there is a proper balance between these two types of fatty acids to ensure optimal health outcomes.^6,7

Micronutrient Markers:

Calcium is one of the most abundant minerals in the human body and plays a key role in multiple bodily functions. Most of the calcium in your body is stored in your bones, with only 1% circulating in your bloodstream. Calcium is required for strong bones and teeth and proper nerve, muscle, and heart function.

Iron is an essential micronutrient in the body. In the body it plays an important role in the production of healthy red blood cells. It also is a key component of proteins such as hemoglobin (the protein in red blood cells that carry oxygen), myoglobin (the protein in muscle that binds to oxygen), and enzymes (proteins that enable metabolic processes to occur). Iron is needed for proper growth and development. Iron must be supplied by the diet or through supplementation because the body is not able to produce it on its own.

Carotene is a substance in foods that serves as a precursor to the active form of vitamin A in the body. It also functions as an antioxidant, which helps to protect cells from damage. In foods, it is the pigment in carrots, pumpkins, sweet potatoes, cantaloupe, mangoes, and papaya that colors them orange.

Vitamin B12 (also known as cobalamin) is an essential nutrient necessary for producing and maintaining nerve and red blood cells, supporting the nervous system, and helping to create DNA, the basis of all cells. Optimal vitamin B12 status is important to support metabolism, red blood cell production, and nerve function. Vitamin B12 must be supplied by the diet or through supplementation because the body is not able to produce it on its own.

Vitamin E, also known as tocopherol, is a fat-soluble (dissolves in fat) vitamin that has several important functions in the body. It acts as an antioxidant, helping to protect cells from damage caused by free radicals (unstable molecules). This can be particularly beneficial for athletes, who are exposed to oxidative stress due to their high level of physical activity. Oxidative stress occurs when the number of free radicals and antioxidants are out of balance. Vitamin E also helps boost the immune system, replenish red blood cells, heal wounds, reduce inflammation, and prevent blood clots from forming inside blood vessels. There are several types of vitamin E, each with varying biological activity and antioxidant capacity. Alpha-tocopherol (α-tocopherol) is the most biologically active form of this vitamin and is the only one utilized by the human body. Although other tocopherols are absorbed and serve various roles, the human body does not convert them into alpha-tocopherol for usage. Alpha-tocopherol is found in plant oils, nuts, seeds, and leafy green vegetables, and it is frequently used in vitamin supplements. This test measures the levels of alpha-tocopherol and beta-gamma-tocopherol in the bloodstream.

This test measures the amount of 25-hydroxyvitamin D in your bloodstream, an indicator for the level of vitamin D in your body. Vitamin D is involved in regulating calcium and phosphorus, which are essential nutrients to promote bone strength and cellular health. Vitamin D can also help the immune system fight infections and is known to be involved in muscle function and protein production. Your body produces vitamin D after exposure to sunlight or from consuming certain foods and supplements.

Your body uses glucose for energy, and if your cells do not receive enough glucose, your body will burn fat instead. This process results in the formation of ketones. Elevated ketone levels in the urine may indicate diabetic ketoacidosis, a complication of diabetes. Infections can increase the risk of ketoacidosis in patients with diabetes. Ketones may also be detected in the urine of those following a ketogenic diet.

Folate, also known as vitamin B9, is required for red and white blood cell development, tissue growth, cell function, DNA production, and the breakdown, usage, and creation of proteins. The term folate is often used to describe the naturally occurring form, while folic acid refers to the supplement form added to foods. Because folate is linked to red blood cell function, deficiencies in folate can lead to decreased endurance and fatigue.

Ferritin is a protein in the blood that contains iron and helps you understand how much iron your body is storing. Blood levels of ferritin correlate to the body's iron status. Because iron is an important component of oxygen-carrying hemoglobin in the blood, low ferritin levels may result in suboptimal physical performance and endurance.

Bilirubin is a yellowish substance found in bile, a fluid produced and released by the liver. This waste product is produced during the normal breakdown of red blood cells. In the body, red blood cells have a life span of about 120 days, after which older red blood cells are destroyed as new ones are made. Bilirubin passes through the liver and is eventually excreted out of the body. Measuring bilirubin is helpful in evaluating red blood cell breakdown, liver function, anemia, and jaundice (yellowing of the skin).

Serum Osmolality is a blood test to help the athlete monitor the body's water balance. Osmolality is a measure of how concentrated a fluid is. In other words, it is a measure of the concentration of all chemical particles found in the fluid (serum) portion of blood. Low blood levels may indicate overhydration, while high levels may indicate dehydration.

The Blood Urea Nitrogen/Creatinine Ratio (BUN/Creatinine) is a blood test that calculates the ratio of 2 waste products in the blood: urea and creatinine. Urea is produced when the liver breaks down ammonia. Creatinine is produced when muscle tissue breaks down. This ratio is used to assess kidney function and hydration status.

Sodium is a vital mineral in the body. It is carefully regulated by the kidneys and plays an important role in the body's water balance. Sodium is an electrolyte, which means it is a mineral with an electrical charge. Electrolytes affect how much water is in your body and how your muscles work. During exercise, sodium is the major electrolyte lost through sweat and the most important one to replace after exercise. Because sodium is essential for muscle and nerve function and hydration, it is critical to monitor and manage sodium levels in the body. Out-of-range levels may decrease muscle power and motor control during performance or cause muscle cramping.

Potassium is an electrolyte that is also one of the body's most important minerals. It helps to regulate water balance, blood pressure, and heart rate. Potassium is also necessary for muscle contraction and nerve function. Monitoring and regulating potassium levels in the body is critically important, as potassium is essential to muscle and nerve function and hydration. Out-of-range levels may decrease muscle power and motor control during performance or lead to muscle cramping.

Chloride is an electrolyte that helps to balance fluids inside and outside of your body's cells. Chloride plays an essential role in metabolism and is instrumental in maintaining proper blood volume, blood pressure, hydration fluid balance, muscle response, and acid/base balance. Blood chloride can be elevated when the body loses excessive amounts of sodium- chloride in the body through high rates of fluid loss. If the body is inadequately hydrated, the athlete may not be able to perform optimally.

Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) is a form of nitrogen found in urea, a waste product created during protein metabolism. As proteins are broken down into amino acids, these amino acids are then broken down and converted into ammonia, which the liver then converts into a less toxic substance called urea. Urea is transported through the bloodstream to the kidneys, where it is filtered and eliminated from the body through urine. BUN provides an important measure of your muscle status and is an indication that your body is breaking down valuable proteins, such as muscle.

The liver produces creatine, which the muscles use as an energy source. During normal muscular use, some creatine will be broken down into creatinine as a waste product by the muscles. Creatinine is transported through the bloodstream to the kidneys, where it is filtered and eliminated from the body through urine. If creatinine levels are high, it may be an indication that the kidneys are not able to adequately remove it from the blood. Creatinine levels can rise because of muscle breakdown caused by high-volume, intense training and competition.

This panel also includes the collection of key physical measurements and a Health Risk Assessment, which is a brief survey that will capture family health history and current health and wellness behaviors. Combined with your diagnostic test results, these metrics will provide you with a personalized Health Quotient Score The Health Quotient Score, developed by Quest, is a numerical representation of your health on a scale from 1 to 100. This score is unique to you and factors in select lab test results, a Health Risk Assessment, and biometric screening. The higher your score, the better your health. You can use this number as your baseline, then develop a plan improving your health and track your progress over time.

At the time of your appointment, physical measurements such as your height, weight, waist size, and blood pressure are taken to provide you with additional health-related information.

A one-on-one discussion with a doctor to review your results and set measurable and achievable health and fitness goals.

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FAQs

How does muscle affect eGFR?

Athletes may have eGFR outside of the range of normal values due to large amounts of muscle mass and muscle metabolism. In this situation, the effect is unlikely to be kidney dysfunction, but rather a larger demand on the kidneys because of high metabolic output. eGFR results can be monitored to ensure the kidneys are functioning appropriately to filter waste products from the blood.

What does it mean if my white blood cell count is out-of-range?

A low white blood cell count, also called leukopenia, may mean your body cannot fight off infection, and an excessive white blood cell count (leukocytosis) may indicate an infection or inflammation. Additionally, white blood cells are a component of the immune system and are classified into subtypes called neutrophils, monocytes, lymphocytes, eosinophils, and basophils. If the neutrophil count is high, this may be indicative of an acute infection, stress, muscle damage, rheumatoid arthritis, or other inflammatory disorders.

If the neutrophil count is low, it may be the result of a bacterial infection or medical condition. A consistently low neutrophil count, in the absence of disease, may be a sign of overtraining.

Monocytes can be elevated because of an infection, inflammation, allergic reaction, or asthma. During exercise, the number of monocytes in circulation increases. However, the number of monocytes in circulation normally returns to resting levels when exercise stops. Athletes, especially endurance and female athletes, may normally have lower monocyte counts than the range of normal results (called the reference range). This is often considered an adaptation to training.

An elevated lymphocyte count may mean an infection or other immune challenge. If the lymphocyte count is low, it may be the result of a medical condition. A low lymphocyte count may also occur from undernutrition, stress, use of corticosteroids (such as prednisone), or high exercise volumes.

If the eosinophil count is high, it could be the result of an infection, allergic reaction, eczema, or asthma. Certain medical conditions such as autoimmune diseases, hay fever, or leukemia are also associated with elevated eosinophil counts. If the eosinophil count is low, it may be the result of high levels of cortisol in the body or alcohol intoxication.

When the number of basophils, like eosinophils, climbs too high, they can contribute to allergies and other inflammatory reactions in the body. A low basophil count may indicate that the athlete is unlikely to be experiencing an allergic response and this is generally not a cause for concern.

I thought triglycerides were harmful, so why do they matter for athletic performance?

In medicine, triglycerides are used to monitor for conditions like diabetes or coronary artery disease. However, triglycerides can provide an important fuel during exercise. Triglycerides are a type of fat found in the blood. When you eat, your body converts any calories it doesn't need to use right away into triglycerides. The triglycerides are then stored in your fat cells. Later, when your body needs energy, hormones release the triglycerides into your blood so they can be used for fuel. This process is known as lipolysis.

People who exercise frequently tend to have lower levels of triglycerides in their blood because their bodies use more triglycerides for energy during exercise. Distance runners and other endurance athletes usually have the lowest levels of triglycerides because they use the most energy during exercise. Triglycerides are an important source of energy for athletes, helping them to maintain their performance during exercise.

Does hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism affect athletic performance?

The primary role of thyroid hormones is to regulate metabolic rate, and improper function of the thyroid gland could lead to significant decreases in athletic performance.

If thyroid stimulating hormones, or TSH, is high, the thyroid gland is likely not producing enough thyroid hormones or working as it should. Underactive thyroid function can affect energy levels, growth, mood, and performance. Because of fatigue, hypothyroidism can make it difficult to exercise, and your capacity to train as an athlete is significantly reduced.

When the TSH level is low, it means that the thyroid gland is overactive and producing high amounts of thyroid hormones. An overactive thyroid may make maintaining muscle mass difficult. The oversecretion of thyroid hormones can have a catabolic effect on skeletal muscle tissue.

Importantly, athletes can maintain healthy thyroid hormone levels and avoid these complications with proper diagnosis and treatment.

What is the relationship between potassium and sodium?

The electrolytes potassium and sodium work in tandem to help maintain fluid balance and blood volume, nerve and muscle growth, heart function, and pH balance in the body. Your cells use potassium alongside sodium, and both are essential for cell function. There is a mutual trade-off between sodium and potassium to maintain balance within the body. An ion exchange occurs when sodium or potassium enters a cell. When sodium enters the cell, potassium leaves, and when potassium enters the cell, sodium leaves.

Aren't iron deficiency and iron deficiency anemia the same?

No, there is a difference between the terms, though they sometimes seem to be used interchangeably. Anemia is caused by insufficient levels of hemoglobin, whereas a lack of iron causes iron deficiency.

It's possible to have an iron deficiency while maintaining a normal hemoglobin level. However, a person with iron deficiency anemia has neither sufficient levels of hemoglobin nor iron. It's important to note that anemia can also be caused by issues other than iron imbalance, such as blood loss, inflammation, and certain health conditions.

What next steps should I take if I have an abnormal result?

You should share your results with a healthcare provider who can review your medical history and lab tests and together you can make a plan going forward that is right for you.

Can I use my FSA or HSA funds to purchase tests at questhealth.com?

You may be able to use your FSA or HSA funds to purchase lab tests at questhealth.com. Please review your FSA/HSA plan or check with a tax professional to confirm specific requirements for individual eligibility.

Can I use my FSA or HSA funds to purchase tests at questhealth.com?

Our references

These tests, as a group of markers, are intended to provide health, fitness, and performance insights to empower individuals to achieve optimal lifestyle health (exercise, nutrition, recovery, hydration, stress management). These tests are not intended to be a replacement for routine medical monitoring. Individuals taking in these tests are encouraged to seek professional medical assistance regarding the medical implications of any test results.

National Institutes of Health. Omega-3 Fatty Acids - Health Professional Fact Sheet. Accessed July 22, 2024. https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Omega3FattyAcids-HealthProfessional/
Quest Diagnotics. OmegaCheck. Accessed July 22, 2024. https://testdirectory.questdiagnostics.com/test/test-guides/TS_OmegaCheck/omegacheck?p=td
Itakura H, Yokoyama M, Matsuzaki M, et al. Relationships between plasma fatty acid composition and coronary artery disease. J Atheroscler Thromb. 2011;18:99-107. doi:10.5551/jat.5876
Nelson JR, Raskin S. The eicosapentaenoic acid:arachidonic acid ratio and its clinical utility in cardiovascular disease. Postgrad Med. 2019 May;131(4):268-277. doi: 10.1080/00325481.2019.1607414. Epub 2019 May 7. PMID: 31063407.
Wan JB , Huang LL ,Rong R , et al. Endogenously decreasing tissue n-6/n-3 fatty acid ratio reduces atherosclerotic lesions in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice by inhibiting systemic and vascular inflammation. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol.
Simopoulos AP. The importance of the ratio of omega-6/omega-3 essential fatty acids. Biomed Pharmacother. 2002 Oct;56(8):365-79. doi: 10.1016/s0753-3322(02)00253-6. PMID: 12442909.
Dyall SC. Long-chain omega-3 fatty acids and the brain: a review of the independent and shared effects of EPA, DPA and DHA. Front Aging Neurosci. 2015 Apr 21;7:52. doi: 10.3389/fnagi.2015.00052. PMID: 25954194; PMCID: PMC4404917.
Skypala IJ, McKenzie R. Nutritional issues in food allergy. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol. 2019;57(2):166-178. doi:10.1007/s12016-018-8688-x

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